The Legal Void in Climate-Induced Displacement
Towards a Global Protection Framework
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.57947/qrp.v65i1-3.227Keywords:
Refugee, climate, legal, framework, cooperationAbstract
Climate change constitutes one of the most widespread types of natural injustice that humanity is now facing, and one of its many consequences is the forced migration of people. Those displaced by environmental disruption are referred to as climate refugees, also known as environmental or climate migrants. However, international law has not yet defined how these people integrate into the prevailing refugee legislation or other areas of migratory services. This paper begins by examining the gaps and poor administration of international refugee legislation for climate refugees, and how their lack of institutional and legal standing has been causing them great suffering. A vivid illustration of why those gaps require to be filled is later provided by the cases of Teitiota from Kiribati and various South Asian countries pertaining to climate refugees. The paper also outlines the international relations viewpoint on the global reluctance for recognising climate refugees and offers some suggested fixes. Through the lens of Realism and Constructivism, this paper identifies the nexus between legal vacuum for climate refugees and global inaction. The study comes to the conclusion that the most workable and enforceable answers to the intricate legal issues raised by climate-induced displacement may be found in the explicit revision of current conventions, a restructured institutional framework, and regional and international cooperation.
References
Al Banna, M. (2024). Seeking legal protection for environmental refugees. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 16(3), 821-834.
Albrecht, E., & Plewa, M. P. (2014). International recognition of environmental refugees. Environmental Policy and Law, 2, 78-85.
Almulhim, A. I., Alverio, G.N., Sharifi, A., Shaw, R., Huq, S., Mahmud, M. J., Ahmad, S., & Abubakar, I. R. (2024). Climate-induced migration in the global south: An in-depth analysis. npj Climate Action, 3(24), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-024-00133-1
Anton, D. K., & Shelton, D. L. (2011). Environmental protection and human rights. Cambridge University Press.
Atapattu, S. (2018). A new category of refugees? 'Climate refugees' and a gaping hole in international law. In S. Behrman & A. Kent (Eds.), Climate refugees ‘beyond the legal impasse’? (p. 34-52). Routledge.
Baker-Jones, M., & Baker, M. (2015). Teitiota v The Chier Executive of Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment: A person displaced. QUT Law Review, 15(2), 102-121. https://doi.org/10.5204/qutlr.v15i2.640
Beena. (2024). Climate-induced displacement in South Asia: The coming challenge. NatStrat. www.natstrat.org/articledetail/publications/climate-induced-displacement-in-south-asia-the-coming-challenge
Behrman, S., & Kent, A. (2020). The Teitiota Case and the limitations of the human rights framework. Questions of International Law, 75, 25–39. https://www.qil-qdi.org/the-teitiota-case-and-the-limitations-of-the-human-rights-framework /
Biermann, F., & Boas, I. (2012). Climate change and human migration: Towards a global governance system to protect climate refugees. In H. G. Brauch, U. Oswald Spring, C. Mesjasz, J. Grin, P. Kameri-Mbote, B. Chourou, P. Dunay, & J. Scheffran (Eds.), Climate change, human security and violent conflict: Challenges for societal stability (pp. 291-300). Springer.
Chomette, G. P. (2010). Indian Ocean: Maldives, an Archipelago in Peril. In Collectif Argos (Ed.), Climate Refugees (pp. 124–163). The MIT Press.
Chowhan, A. N. (2011, July 5). Signing the Refugee Convention. The Express Tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/story/202214/signing-the-refugee-convention/
Chu, E., & Michael, K. (2019). Recognition in urban climate justice: marginality and exclusion of migrants in Indian cities. Environment & Urbanization, 31(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818814449
Cohen, R., & Bradley, M. (2010). Disasters and Displacement: Gaps in Protection. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, 1, 95-142.
Constructivism in International Relations. (n.d.). International Affairs Forum. Accessed July 3, 2025. www.iaforum.org/ContentViewInternal_Document.cfm?contenttype_id=5&contentid=8773
Dalla Costa, A., & Copi, L. M. (2023). Legal protection of climate refugees: A gap in international law and the theory of ecological vulnerability. Revista Tempo do Mundo, 9(3), 471–502. https://doi.org/10.38116/rtm09n3art07
Das, D., & Basu, S. (2023). Climate change, migration, and internally displaced populations in the Indian Ocean region: Evidence from South Asia and East Africa. Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, 19(1), Article 225386. https://doi.org/10.1080/19480881.2023.225386
Devictor, X., & Rigaud, K. K. (2023, December 7). Five things to consider on the climate-refugees nexus. World Bank Blogs. Accessed August 3, 2025, from https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/dev4peace/five-things-consider-climate-refugees-nexus
Dhaka, V., Saini, K., & Chaudhary, D. (2022). Accessing the impacts of climate change on South Asia: A study of climate refugees; the ignored victims of climate change. International Journal of Geography, Geology and Environment, 4(1), 110-115. https://www.doi.org/10.22271/27067483.2022.v4.i1b.89
Donnelly, J. (2000). Realism and international relations. Cambridge University Press.
Duong, T. T. V. (2010). When islands drown: The plight of ‘climate change refugees’ and recourse to international human rights law. University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law, 31(4), 1239-1266.
Fauziyah, N. N. (2022). The legal status and legal protection towards climate refugees under international law: A study of Ioane Teitiota case. Belli Ac Pacis (Jurnal Hukum Internasional), 8, 71-77.
Ferris, E., & Bergmann, J. (2017). Soft law, migration and climate change governance. Journal of Human Rights and the Environment, 8(1), 6-29. https://doi.org/10.4337/jhre.2017.01.01
Formale, E., & Doebbler, C. F. (2015). Closing the legal gap to protect the victims of climate change induced displacement (NCCR Trade Working Papers No 2015/06). National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Trade Organization https://www.nccr-trade.org/publications/working-papers/working-paper-201506-closing-the-legal-gap-to-protect-the-victims-of-climate-change-induced-displacement
Fransen, S., Hunns, A., Jaber, T., & Janz, T. (2023). Climate risks for displaced populations: A scoping review (UNU-MERIT Working Papers No. 045). Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT), Maastricht University. https://www.merit.unu.edu/publications/wppdf/2023/wp2023-045.pdf
Gemenne, F. (2015). One good reason to speak of ‘Climate Refugees’. Forced Migration Review, 49, 70-71.
Gibb, C., & Ford, J. (2012). Should the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change recognize climate migrants? Environmental Research Letters, 7, 045601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045601
Giddens, A. (2009). The politics of climate change. Polity Press.
Gieseken, H. O. (2017). The protection of migrants under international humanitarian law. International Review of the Red Cross, 99(1), 121-152. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383118000103
Grasso, M. (2010). An ethical approach to climate adaptation finance. Global Environmental Change, 20(1), 74-81.
Grieco, J. M. (1988). Anarchy and the limits of cooperation: A realist critique of the newest liberal institutionalism. International Organization, 42(3), 485-507. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300027715
Gupta, D., Kumar, P., Okano, N., & Sharma, M. (2023). Climate-induced migration in India and Bangladesh: A systematic review of drivers, impacts, and adaptation mechanisms. Climate, 11(11), 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11110227
Handayani, I., & Fauziah, A. (2020). Environmental-induced displacement: Potential protection under international law. Yustisia, 9(2), 168-183.
Herz, J. H. (1951). Political realism and political idealism: A study in theories and realities. University of Chicago Press.
Hiraide, L. A. (2023). Climate refugees: A useful concept? Towards an alternative vocabulary of ecological displacement. Politics,43(2), 267-282.
Human Rights Committee. (2019). Individual opinion of Committee member Duncan Laki Muhumuza (dissenting), ICCPR, Annex 2, para. 1. United Nations. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3979204?ln=en&v=pdf
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Annex 2, Individual opinion of Committee member Duncan Laki Muhumuza (dissenting), para 1. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3979204?ln=en&v=pdf
Johnson, C. A. (2018). Climate, migration and displacement: Exploring the politics of preventative action. In R. McLeman & F. Gemenne (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 47-64). Routledge.
Jolly, S., & Ahmad, N. (2019). Climate refugees in South Asia: Protection under international legal standards and state practices in South Asia.Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3137-4
Kabir, M. E., & Kamruzzaman, P. (2022). Exploring the drivers of vulnerability among disadvantaged internal migrants in riverbank erosion-prone areas in North-West Bangladesh. Journal of South Asian Development, 17(1), 57-83.
Kabir, M. E. (2020). Policing the mega city: A study of metropolitan Dhaka [Doctoral dissertation, University of Dhaka.] http://repository.library.du.ac.bd/handle/20.500.12648/20564
Khan, M. R. (2016, April 4). Climate change, adaptation and international relations theory. E-International Relations. https://www.e-ir.info/2016/04/29/climate-change-adaptation-and-international-relations-theory/
Kishtwari, S. (2024, April 16). India and Bangladesh must address climate migration together. Climate Diplomacy. https://climate-diplomacy.org/magazine/environment/india-and-bangladesh-must-address-climate-migration-together
Kolmannskog, V., & Trebbi, L. (2010). Climate change, natural disasters and displacement: A multi-track approach to filling the protection gaps. International Review of the Red Cross, 92(879), 713–730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383110000500
LA. (2022, January 22). Rethinking refugee crisis through a constructivism perspective: Syria’s experience. The Organization for World Peace. https://theowp.org/reports/rethinking-refugee-crisis-through-a-constructivism-perspective-syrias-experience/
Lee, S. (2025, May 27). Constructivism in philosophy of science: Understanding the core principles and implications. Number Analytics. https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/constructivism-philosophy-science-ultimate-guide
Leighton, M. (2010). Climate change and migration: Key issues for legal protection of migrants and displaced persons. UNFCCC. https://seors.unfccc.int/applications/seors/attachments/get_attachment?code=NL2KZ9POSH0E2SR1HSP6B58BH1KCUJE3
Leng, A., Dai, D., Wang, L., Lu, C., & Leng, A. (2022). Global climate change refugee status and feasibility pathway study. International Journal of Frontiers in Sociology, 4(11), 98-102.
Mayer, B. (2011). The international legal challenges of climate-induced migration: Proposal for an international legal framework. Colo. J. Int’l Envtl. L. & Pol’y, 22(3), 357-380.
Mayer, B. (2018). Who are ‘climate refugees? Academic engagement in the post-truth era. In S. Behrman & A. Kent (Eds.), Climate Refugees ‘Beyond the Legal Impasse’? (pp. 91-97). Routledge.
McAdam, J. (2008). Climate change 'refugees' and international law. Bar News: Journal of the NSW Bar Association, Winter, 27-38. https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/NSWBarAssocNews/2008/11.pdf
McDonnell, N. (2023). Falling through the protection gaps: Inappropriate protection of climate displaced persons in the international refugee legal structure. The Transnational Human Rights Review, 10, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-4631.1103
McMichael, C. (2015). Climate change-related migration and infectious disease. Virulence, 6(6), 548-553.
McNamara, K. E. (2007). Conceptualizing discourses on environmental refugees at the United Nations. Population and Environment, 29(1), 12-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-007-0058-1
Meadowcroft, J. (2009, May). Climate change governance (Policy Research Working Paper). The World Bank, Development Economics, World Development Report Team. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/210731468332049368/pdf/WPS4941.pdf
Michelle, L. (2010). Climate change and migration: key issues for legal protection of migrants and displaced persons (Report). UNFCCC. https://seors.unfccc.int/applications/seors/attachments/get_attachment?code=NL2KZ9POSH0E2SR1HSP6B58BH1KCUJE3
Montgomery, J. D. (2018). Rethinking the ‘debate on environmental refugees’: From ‘environmental humanists’ to proponents and critics. Political Ecology, 33(1), 36.
Muni, V. (2020, October 23). Climate change politics through the constructivist approach (NICE Commentary). National Institute for Climate Change. https://nice.org.np/archives/6365
Mwakalimi Kita, S. & Raleigh, C. (2018). Rhetoric, reality and questions. In R. McLeman & F. Gemenne (Eds.), Routledge handbook of environmental displacement and migration (p. 365-369). Routledge.
Narayanan, B. K. B., Shipman, M. L., Foyle, L., Kharas, K., Livingston, B., Li, N. T., Medeleanu, M. V., & Taguchi, L. (2023). Climate crisis induced migration: A global framework to minimize and manage large-scale climate refugees and migrants. Journal of Science Policy & Governance, 23(1). https://www.sciencepolicyjournal.org/uploads/5/4/3/4/5434385/narayanan_etal_jspg_23-1_1
Nation. (2017, June 20). Second largest refugee population hosted by Pakistan according to UN. https://nation.com.pk/20-Jun-2017/second-largest-refugee-population-hosted-by-pakistan-according-to-un
Nazir, N., Saleem, M. S., Hussain, R., & Ali, E. (2024). Constructivism in a changing world: Adaptation and contribution to global politics. International Journal of Human and Society (IJHS), 4(2), 97-113.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2023, June 20). UN expert calls for full legal protection for people displaced by climate change [Press release]. OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/06/un-expert-calls-full-legal-protection-people-displaced-climate-change
Overseas Development Institute (2016). Climate-induced migration and displacement: closing the policy gap. ODI. https://www.scribd.com/document/340778105/10996-1
Padonu, D. (2025, April 30). The rise of climate refugees: Addressing the human rights gaps in environment displacement. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=5278201
Piguet, E. (2008). Climate change and forced migration (Research Paper No. 153). UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). https://www.refworld.org/reference/research/unhcr/2008/en/73172
Pourhashemi, S. A., Khoshmaneshzadeh, R., Soltanieh, M., & Hermidasbavand, D. (2012). Analyzing the individual and social rights condition of climate refugees from the international environmental law perspective. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9, 57-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-011-0017-3
Rahman, M. M. (2020). Policing the mega city: A study of metropolitan Dhaka [Doctoral dissertation, University of Dhaka]. http://repository.library.du.ac.bd/handle/20.500.12648/20564
Usiemure, C., & Gbigbidje, D. L. (2018). Realist theory of international relations. International Scholar Journal of Arts and Social Science Research, 1(1), 11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360558884_REALIST_THEORY_OF_INTERNATIONAL_RELATIONS
Sabirin, A., Bayuaji, A. P., & Keumala, D. (2024). Legal vacuums: The challenge of protection for climate refugees. Lampung Journal of International Law, 6(2), 95-108.
Sachs, C. (2025). A looming crisis: Exploring the precarious legal status of ‘climate refugees’ under international and human rights law. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, 27, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.52214/consilience.vi27.12557
Sahinkuye, M. (2019). A theoretical framework for the protection of environmental refugees in international law. The Transnational Human Rights Review, 6, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.60082/2563-4631.1085
Shekhar, S. (2024, August 20). South Asia’s escalating climate crisis: Confronting the displacement dilemma. IARAN. https://iaran.org/blog/south-asias-escalating-climate-crisis-confronting-the-displacement-dilemma
Sindhoora, M. G., & Pious, F. (2025). Climate refugees: A study on Ioane Teitiota’s efforts for climate change. International Journal of Law Management and Humanities, 8(1), 378-391. https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.118903
Sofer, K. (2015, November 30). The realist case for climate change cooperation. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2015/11/30/126356/the-realist-case-for-climate-change-cooperation
Sood, S. (2017). Discourse and responsibility: Climate change refugees in South Asia [Bachelor thesis, University of Michigan]. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/139659
Spadotto, N. (2018, August 5). A well-founded fear of environment: International resistance to climate refugees. E-International Relations. https://www.e-ir.info/2018/08/05/a-well-founded-fear-of-environment-international-resistance-to-climate-refugees/
Steenmans, K., & Cooper, A. (2020). Ioane Teitiota v New Zealand: A landmark ruling for climate refugees? Coventry Law Journal, 25(2), 23–32. https://pureportal.coventry.ac.uk/en/publications/ioane-teitiota-v-new-zealand-a-landmark-ruling-for-climate-refugees
Streeter, E., & Cloward, J. (2022). Climate migrants and the denial of refugee status. Journal of Student Research, 11(4), 1-15. https://www.jsr.org/hs/index.php/path/article/download/3736/1245/23323
Toussaint, P. (2016, March 21). Climate migration post-Paris. IASS Potsdam Blog. http://blog.iass-potsdam.de/2016/03/climate-migration-post-paris/
UNHCR. (2018, March). Sri Lanka fact sheet. https://www.unhcr.org/media/sri-lanka-fact-sheet
United Nations University, UNU-EHS. (2008). The impact of environmental degradation on migration flows across countries. UNU Institute for Environment and Human Security. http://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:1894
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2005). The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA). United Nations. https://www.preventionweb.net/sendai-framework/Hyogo-Framework-for-Action
Unny, A. (2020). The U.S inaction on climate change: Realism and its interpretations. Journal of International Studies, 16, 89-103. https://doi.org/10.32890/jis2020.16.6
Vlassopoulos, C. A. (2013). Defining environmental migration in the climate change era: Problem, consequence or solution. In T. Faist & J. Schade (Eds.), Disentangling migration and climate change: Methodologies, political discourses and human rights (pp. 145-163). Springer.
Veronis, L., Boyd, B., Obokata, R., & Main, B. (2018). Environmental change and international migration: A review. In R. McLeman & F. Gemenne (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 42–70). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315638843-4
Warner, K., Ehrhart, C., de Sherbinin, A., Adamo, S., & Chai-Onn, T. (2009). In search of shelter: Mapping the effects of climate change on human migration and displacement (Report). CARE International. https://www.care.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/CC-2009-CARE_In_Search_of_Shelter.pdf
Weber, E. (2014). Environmental change and (im)mobility in the South. In S. Albertz, A. Rechkemmer, T. Schulz, & J. Scheffran (Eds.), Global Change, Conflicts, and Mobility: Challenges of Future Migration (pp. 119–148). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94
Yayboke, E., Nzuki, C., & Ballard, S. (2022, June 16). The White House Report on Climate Migration Explained. CSIS. https://www.csis.org/analysis/white-house-report-climate-migration-explained
Zhang, Q., Gao, S., Li, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Analyzing the international refugee system for solving the problem of climate migration. In 2021 International Conference on Social Development and Media Communication (SDMC 2021, Beijing, China) (pp. 45-50). Atlantis Press. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/sdmc-21/125968506
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Quarterly on Refugee Problems - AWR Bulletin
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
